to aid in viral absorption, MgCl2 solution was mixed into sewage and freshwater samples prior to filtration at a final concentration of 25 mM. 100 mL of sewage and 2 L of environmental water samples were filtered through 0.45-mM pore size, 9720791 type HA membranes on a filtration manifold under vacuum. Nucleic acids were extracted from the recovered membranes using the PowerWater RNA Isolation Kit, supplied by MoBio Laboratories, CA, according to a modified protocol designed for separate extraction of both RNA and DNA, described previously by Tong, 2011. Seven microliters of RNA extracted from each sample were used as template for RT-PCR, performed with the DyNAmo cDNA synthesis kit according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Random hexamers were used as primers. Materials and Methods Wastewater Sample Collection Because MedChemExpress Salianic acid A multiple enteroviral strains are fecally shed in high loads from infected individuals, urban wastewater was used as the nucleic acid source for optimization of EnV molecular amplification. Wastewater was obtained from 
the Sand Island Wastewater Treatment Plant, responsible for processing approximately 85% of Oahu’s wastewater. This facility utilizes an advanced primary treatment, disinfecting sewage via ultraviolet radiation before releasing it 1.7 miles offshore into the ocean. Samples were collected in 2-L sterile, polypropylene containers from the following three treatment stages: raw influent, post-primary clarification/pre-UV disinfection, and post-UV disinfection/effluent. Samples were transported on ice to a BSL-2 laboratory and processed immediately. Comparative Analysis of Published Enterovirus Primer Sets While several RT-PCR protocols have already been established for the detection of EnV, little is known about their comparative detection sensitivities, which is of utmost importance when assessing microbial water quality. Therefore, eighteen published primer sets, specific for amplifying various regions of the EnV genome, were selected in this study in a comparative evaluation of detection sensitivity. The primer sets chosen are specific for all pathogenic but highly diverse human enteroviruses, with the exception of EvVP1F/EvVP1R, which specifically selects for EV71, causative agent of hand, foot, and mouth disease in children. All primer sets were initially tested under standard PCR conditions using single-source cDNA from wastewater influent as the nucleic acid template. Five microliters of cDNA was added to 20 mL PCR mix containing 1X Taq reaction buffer, 2.0 mM MgCl2 solution, 200 nM ” of each dNTP, 400 nM of forward and reverse primers, and 2 units of Taq DNA polymerase. Reaction tubes were placed in a MastercyclerH Gradient for an initial denaturation at 94uC for 5 min., followed by 40 cycles of denaturation at 94uC for 30 sec., annealing at 56uC for 20 sec., and extension at 72uC for 30 sec., completed by a final extension at 72uC for 5 min. EnV detection was analyzed by gel electrophoresis. 10 mL PCR product2 mL 6x loading dye was loaded into the wells of an ethidium-bromide stained 2% agarose gel in 0.5x TBE buffer, to which 120V was applied until sufficient fragment migration had Environmental Water Sample Collection Between June 2010 and October 2011, twenty-two surface water samples were collected from various marine and freshwater sites around the island of Oahu. No specific permits were required for sample collection. Marine sites include Sand Island State Recreational Area, Kailua Bay, Waikiki Beach,